02.2+Knowledge+Transfer

//Submitted by Yan Liu//

eLearning enables learning to occur across geographical boundaries but certain cultural boundaries mean that knowledge in instructional materials may also need to be modified to be suitable for an audience from a different cultural context to enable engagement, participation, and further co-construction of knowledge. With reference to the case study, the use of Western knowledge in the ‘learning’ of eLearning for learners who operate in the Chinese organisational context could pose some barriers.

Management knowledge is dynamic and, while explicit knowledge can be easily codified and transferred verbally or via text, tacit knowledge, which is based on experience in a particular context, is more problematic to transfer in a cross-cultural situation even if the language barrier is non-existent (Hewling 2005, Newell 1999). Tacit knowledge pertaining to management styles demands the learner experience or observe the management style in a relevant context. In this case the learner would benefit from observing the coaching style of management in a Chinese organisational context because the shared experience would form a basis for further interaction required for the social constructivist learning within a community model (Wenger 1998). Unfortunately, the limited sharing and interaction which occured in the community limited the encoding of coaching in the Chinese context and as such, managers who have developed their own understanding of organisational management in such a context might not easily incorporate course content constructed by Western practitioners into their repertoire of management knowledge and practice.

The coaching style of management encourages employees to establish long-term development goals and aims to assist them in developing a plan (Goleman 2000). The coaching manager leads the employee to achieve their goal by helping individuals to identify their career aspirations in relation to their strength and weaknesses, as well as negotiating their role in the development plan and providing much instruction and feedback in the process. Conversely, traditional Chinese management is embedded in a collectivist society characterised by a large power distance, in which individuals can expect paternalistic governance from the leader in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (Hofstede and McCrae 1994, Hofstede 2008). In more individualistic societies, emphasis is placed on individual rights, reward-performance and individual achievement, notions that are more compatible with coaching management. However, characteristics of collectivist cultures, such as the preference for group/team work, prevalence of relationship over task, and the view of management as the management of groups (Littrell 2002) are more closely aligned with the affiliate leadership style, where the emphasis is on building team harmony, fostering a sense of belong and developing relationships (Goleman 2000). Research by Littrell (2002) into ideal leadership styles indicated Chinese subordinates preferred a highly directive supervisor, a finding that is consistent with the socialist/communist work culture. As such, the encoding of the style of coaching and management espoused in the program, by practitioners operating in more individualistic and lower power distance contexts, means that the encoded knowledge can conflict with the exiting practices and understanding of the world by the Chinese learners participating in the course.

Bond and Hwang (in McKenna 1998, p. 108) postulate that, although more complex organisational structure provides the impetus for the managers in China to shift towards more Western styles of leadership, the tendencies of Chinese leaders is towards assuming an authoritarian stance on leadership, which is determined to be one of the most effective leadership styles (Goleman 2000). “Guanxi” and “renqing”, or the notion of relationship and informal “give and take” between people, are used to further one’s own agenda or to get things done. Both are prominent features of Chinese social practice (Littrrell 2002) yet may not be addressed by Western models coaching management. Alternatively, Chan (2010) sees great possiblity for newer forms of learning and teaching models, such as coaching, in China, but suggests that transplanting Western models, that do not recognise existing norms such as "guanxi" and "renqing", is bound for failure. The lack of fundamental change to the coaching models and ideals put forward in the course as it was applied to China may have created a barrier to learning, which would have been worsened by learners who were unable to share their local experiences.

Although strategic contingencies may be universal amongst organisations, most organisations need to operate in a competitive environment to negotiate and transact with external organisations to achieve goals (Littrell 2002), there are nonetheless cultural nuances in organisational management in the Chinese context. Although Chinese organisations have developed to be as complicated as Western organisations, the management style is still security-centred and authoritarian, and this posed a barrier to the nature of the course.


 * References**

Chan, C. K. K., 2010, 'Classroom Innovation for the Chinese Learner: Transcending Dichotomies and Transforming Pedagogies' in Chan, C. K. K. & Rao, N. (eds.), // CERC Studies in Comparative Education. Revisting the Chinese Learner: Changing Context, Changing Education, // Springer Comparative Education and Research Center, The University of Hong Kong.

Goleman, D., 2000, ‘Leadership that gets results’, //Journal Online// //Harvard Business Review//, March-April, viewed 1 April 2010, <[]>

Hewling, A. 2005, 'Culture in the online class: using message analysis to look beyond nationality-based frames of reference', //Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication//, vol. 11, no. 1, article 16, viewed 5 May 2010 <[]>

Hofstede, G. & McCrae R. R., 2004, ‘Personality and Culture Revisited: Linking Traits and Dimensions of Culture’, //Cross-Cultural Research//, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 52-58.

Littrell, R. F., 2002, ‘Desirable leadership behaviours of multi-cultural managers in China’, //Journal of Management Development//, vol. 21, no.21, pp. 5-74.

McKenna, S., 1998, ‘Cross-cultural attitudes towards leadership dimensions, //Leadership & Organization Development Journal//, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 106 – 112.

Newell, S., 1999, ‘The transfer of management knowledge to China: building learning communities rather than translating Western textbooks?’,//Education + Training//, vol. 41, no. 6, pp. 286-293.

Wenger, E., 1998, //Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity//, Cambridge University Press, USA.